Before the Trip. Sandro is unable to fulfill Anna’s needs (notice her belittling smile on 00:07:23 – and her expression of disaffection in the following sex scene). For Anna, sex with Sandro is only worthwhile with someone waiting outside. Here the camera exposes the couple in a room with an open window with Claudia in the view. Anna cannot forget the lack of meaning in her life (yelling why-why-why) and tries to feel something by indulging in casual exhibitionism (which per her expression is not working). Subsequently Claudia is isolated by the camera from below to show she has been left alone compounded by her expression of oh well.

On the Boat. The rich are capricious, as the yacht captain says, they have no clear plan; their aimless wonderings keep the seamen up all night. Again Anna trying to escape the bore yells shark, heightened by sharing the adventure with Claudia.

Claudia and Anna indulge in conversation of null statements on how they slept (establishing them as vacuous – later Giulia is accused of being literal). Later there is sexual charge in the conversation – Giulia’s husband attests his woman is made for all kinds of vice, yet is faithful because of lazy idleness – words compounded by the visuals of his knife pointing upward like a penis under the table (00:21.35). Once again Claudia is the third person in the room, when the man’s approach to touch Giulia is responded to by disinterest.

The Island. Long shots isolate the coldness and beauty on the death wish island with characters a) framed out of balance b) appearing into the frame from below c) in close-up. Here the camera avoids making statements on power relations; the tensions are not so much between the characters than between the emptiness of the landscape and people. The ambivalence of the camera does not force the viewer down a certain path. As if the camera was unmotivated to move at all – Anna is gone and nobody cares. The imagery is nothing sort of iconic – an island, a hurricane approaching. The emptiness of modern lives is externalized by the stares into the void; there is nothingness outside the frame, and the stares are into emptiness, compounded by self-absorbed sterile acting, seemingly out of connection with their emotions.

There is a single desolate building in the landscape. Sandro has forgotten to bring a candle, so selfish seems he that he can offer no warmth. There is no non-diegetic sound during the beginning 30 minutes on the island to guide the emotions. With the exception of Claudia everybody loses interest in finding Anna. A casual moral flexibility was visualized by Sandro trying to kiss Claudia on the boat. While sleeping Claudia plays with her lips (00:42:30) making a connection with the kiss. The ease with what Anna’s death is forgotten and the Claudia’s struggle to let go is the mayor conflict of the film. The McGuffin, to use Hitchcock’s term, for the rest of the film is Anna’s disappearance but her internal conflict also ends up haunting the whole film.

In the Gallery. Giulia externalizes the emancipated active woman, seducing a boy without regrets towards betraying her marriage. Irrespectful of the age difference the young boy is feasting with his eyes the older woman (01:22:37) while the music gives the scene a feel of conquest; the affluent backdrop of the manor adds to the feeling of decadent splendor and indifference. For the third time Claudia is the third person in the room.

Napoli. Italian architecture is used to create a feeling of detachment associated with beauty. We are looking at the church made of concrete. There is no access to the church because the caretaker has gone away. Claudia calls the old village of Noto a cemetery. A man in Napoli spits on the French beach-going tourists.

On the Roof. Sandro who was so far just a playboy hedonist is revealed as a man who exchanged his would-be genius as a creative architect for riches as an underwriter (his internal conflict is externalized on 01:51:58 where Sandro ruins the drawings of a young architect). Sandro is on a search for fulfillment yet he is never able to give any woman what she wants. He has become transitory – his failure as a creative has led to his opportunistic shallowness which permeates the film. The realization that Sandros takes the easiers routes, foreshadows the idea that Sandro is unable to fulfill the needs of any woman who is looking for commitment.

The Torment. Music appears strongly in the last scenes, which feel much more constructed. Claudia is too tired to go to the party but she cannot sleep. Now she is framed in a doorway (02:11:20) isolated by the camera to express her confinement, and now we see her in the mirror – she is disintegrating and cannot take herself seriously. Claudia runs to a balcony but is stopped by the ledge (which looks like the bars of a prison cell), in the other direction she encounters another ledge. In the light of the outside world she is just a shadow (underexposed). In the hallway she is a tiny figure and her steps sound empty in the vastness of the room. In the end of the sequence Claudia escapes through a glass (mirror) doorway seemingly liberating her from her confinement of the building. Subsequently she finds Sandro in the caress of another woman (the climax). But now having been liberated we see her from below and Sandro from above in his misery.

The Last Scene. A close-up of Claudia’s hand with lyrical music (to-be-or-not-to-be), and the caress of her hand through Sandro’s hair. Claudia seen from below, a church-like building behind her, and an open sky above her – she had mentioned her humble upbringing – there is forgiveness.

Synthesis. Unlike in Hollywood formulas, there is little resolve. The wasted search is leading to nothing. While there seems to be forgiveness, the lack of a clear ending makes the film feel real. Human relationships can be random. And Sandro’s inability to commit is something male viewers can identify with. The shallowness of casual love is expressed in his character.

L’Avventura has modern coolness in contrast to the teary-eyed actualities of neorealist masterpieces (Umberto D, the Bicycle Thief) or the fresh air of the French New Wave (400 Blows). The emptiness was perhaps intended as a critique but we have – or at least I have –grown to love and aspire towards that vacuum. The self-indulgence of the individual emancipating from the rules of tradition charged with contemporary preoccupations, that Antonioni shows, I can identify with.

Acontecimento inesperado. Apanha arroz gratuita, leva para casa. Dia. Outro. Assim por anos. A famila fica dependente. Exprime-se uma visão non-romântico da pobreza?

Discuta pobreza dos subterrâneos nova-iorquinos. “Quem foi subterrâneo, é subterraneo para sempre”. O Estónio nem pensa em de onde vem o arroz. Não faz pesquisa. Atravessa no sobrenatural.

O Miguéis tinha uma mulher Polaca? Ah, entao sim – por isso. Menciona Lituanos e Estónios. Pensei. Mudança na vida familiar. Uma familia com poucas esperanças. Humildes. Ficavam satisfeitas na vida com arroz.

Tal como o Couto Miguéis tem olho para detalhes. O que escapa-nos no dia-a-dia. Eu vou dizer… o trabalho de um autor, tanto quanto de um cineasta é… trazer para os nossos olhos as experiências que nós perdem na vida.

Como tratar experiencias novas? Experiencias Luso-americanos. Couto talvez diria – com Palavaras Inventadas. Maria Saraiva de Jesus de Universidade de Aveiro acha que o Miguéis tambem – en vez de dizer “melhorias” diria “improvimentos”.

June 13 This is some unknown bar in Bairro Alto.

June 18 Festival do Silêncio at Musicbox Lisbon: Cais do Sodre Funk Connection

June 6 SOU is the Fado place I discovered today. Rua Maria 73 (in Anjos). They also have a monthly Mercado Urbano where you can buy clothes and jewelry made by local fashion students.

Click here to view the embedded video.

In order to understand the function of the chorus one must remember that at the origins of Greek drama there was only one actor; and even at later dates no more than three actors occupied the stage, each of whom may have played several roles. As there was this clear need to distract the audience while the actors went off-stage to change clothes and costumes, and perhaps prepare for their next role, the function of the chorus may have had more to do with practicality, than with artistic or philosophical considerations.

Aside from the practical the chorus would have had numerous functions in providing a comprehensive and continuous artistic unit. Firstly, according to a view accepted by many scholars, the chorus would provide commentary on actions and events that were taking place before the audience. By doing this the chorus would create a deeper and more meaningful connection between the characters and the audience. Secondly, the chorus would allow the playwright to create a kind of literary complexity only achievable by a literary device controlling the atmosphere and expectations of the audience. Thirdly, the chorus would allow the playwright to prepare the audience for certain key moments in the storyline, build up momentum or slow down the tempo; he could underline certain elements and downplay others. Such usage of the choral structure-making functions may be observed throughout many classical plays but may be more obvious in some than in others.

In Aeschylus’ “Prometheus Bound”, the chorus is composed of Oceanids (nymphs from the ocean, the children of the sea god Oceanus and his wife Tethys). Aeschylus changed the role of the chorus which brought criticisms from Aristotle who his Poetics suggested that “he diminished the importance of the Chorus” (Aristotle 5), and by more modern writers such as H. D. F. Kitto who in his Greek Tragedy: A Literary Study writes “Aeschylus arranges things differently. He makes the chorus do what Greek choruses are supposed never to do: to take a part in the action.” (Kitto 85) Nonetheless such rearrangements might have made the chorus more convincing because it could remain on the stage with Prometheus for the entire play as witness and commentator. Here the chorus could express it’s sympathy for the lead character:

“I mourn for thee, Prometheus, minished and brought low, 
Watering my virgin cheeks with these sad drops, that  flow 
From sorrow’s rainy fount, to fill soft-lidded eyes 
With pure libations for thy fortune’s obsequies.” (Aeschylus)

In the works of Nietzsche the chorus takes on a completely new and profound philosophical meaning. In his The Birth of Tragedy Nietzsche presents a view of a distinct dissonance between what he calls the Apollonian and the Dionysian paradigms, referencing to the dramatic and choral qualities of Greek drama respectively. In a metaphysical framework the chorus is the essence of the play and embodies a certain Dionysian consciousness which deals with the primal realms of the human condition. Nietzsche goes to the extreme of suggesting that the “tragic myth can only be understood as a symbolic picture of Dionysian wisdom by means of Apollonian art.” (Nietzsche 261)

These primal forces would be at the command of the playwright through the choice of character and composition of the chorus. It might well consist of sea nymphs, as in Prometheus Bound, or 15 Theban elders as in Oedipus Rex, or of any other sort of people who would represent the unison of people. It could be argued that the thing that unified the chorus was their mode of communication – more often than not the chorus would elevate its meaning in song. Moreover, and perhaps partly for practical reasons (for it may have been difficult to see the characters from afar because of the relatively large size of the theatre) the chorus would emphasize certain elements of the story through the use of attributes such as masks and weapons.

The chorus may have distinguished itself by an elaborate use of language or style, varying the voice of reason or that of emotion depending on occasion and the intention of the playwright. More importantly though, the chorus could have represented the prevalent views of the contemporary society holding up certain moral and cultural standards – much like the media does for modern people throughout their daily lives

In case of Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex the audience may have already been familiar – and in many cases probably was – with the outcome of the play. This made the task of engaging the viewer ever more difficult. Hence the chorus would create interest by presenting an alternative or additional viewpoint. It may have negotiated sympathies for one or another character, or perhaps depending on the sophistication of the particular character, it may have even guided the characters through problematic situations. This is exemplified by how Oedipus’ (who is all but blind to his fate) and Teiresias’ conversation is affected by the chorus.

“To us it sounds as if Teiresias
has spoken in anger, and, Oedipus,
you have done so, too. That’s not what we need.
Instead we should be looking into this:
How can we best carry out the god’s decree?” (Sophocles 485)

Both in the works of Aeschylus and Sophocles and in Ancient Greek drama in general, the role of the chorus may have been important because of structural and practical reasons.  At the same one may praise primarily as an enhancer and amplifier of impression, and sometimes the voice of a moderator, or the moral voice of the people. Certainly it also had a similar role to music in modern drama underlining important events and downplaying the less important ones. Perhaps most generally though, the chorus would give the ancient playwright a multifunctional literary device for the creation of an award-winning play on the Dionysian festival.   

Bibliography

Aeschylus. The Dramas of Aeschylus. New York: Forgotten Books, 2007.

Aristotle. Poetics. New York: Forgotten Books, 2007.

Kitto, H. D. F. Greek Tragedy: A Literary Study. New York: Routledge Press, 1990.

Nietzsche, Friedrich. The Birth of Tragedy. New York: Plain Label Books, 2000.

Sophocles. The Dramas of Sophocles. New York: Forgotten Books, 2007.

Processes in the climate system which decrease warming (by increasing terrestrial radiation) are called negative feedbacks. They are few but powerful and can broadly be described as processes helping energy radiation escape Earth. For example clouds reflect large amounts of solar energy back into space. Positive feedbacks increase warming (by decreasing terrestrial radiation) and they can be divided into four distinct categories, relating to aerosols, gases, oceans and forests.

Aerosols are any type of dust or liquid or solid particles floating in the atmosphere. In the polar areas aerosols absorb large amounts of energy (the distinct characteristics of each type are modified by its distribution and properties) and create a positive feedback. At lower latitudes (closer to the equator) the absorption of aerosols generates a low negative feedback.

Gases are matter in a state in which atoms and molecules are diffused and move freely. Water vapor is the most significant gaseous absorber of terrestrial radiation and thus creates the largest positive feedback. Carbon dioxide comes in second in terms of feedback. Methane is more potent than CO2 but there is less of it in the atmosphere. Most of the other gases in the atmosphere are more potent absorbers of energy than CO2, but contribute less because of their relative scarcity.

Oceans are the principal component of Earths hydrosphere and make up 71% of its surface area (NOAA). As bodies with a low albedo absorb more energy than high albedo bodies, higher latitude sea-ice, also known as polar ice, starts to absorb more energy when it melts into liquid water. The increase in energy absorption creates a positive feedback.

Forests are a significant part of the Earth’s biosphere and form approximately 30.3% of total land area or 9.4% of the entire planet’s surface (FAO). By capturing CO2 from the atmosphere, forests storage the gas and prevent it from absorbing energy. At higher latitudes though, because of their low albedo foliage, forest tend to absorb more energy than they prevent the CO2 from absorbing – in effect creating a positive feedback.

According to many reports the growing human pressure on the positive feedbacks of the climate system may overpower the negative feedbacks, causing a warmer climate. Scientific study has shown the global increase of aerosols (air pollution), the increase of gas in the atmosphere (CO2), the increase of water over ice (melting polar ice), and the decrease of low latitude forests. A warmer climate is characterized by a range of problematical effects concerned with rising sea levels, receding glaciers and polar ice, extending tropical areas, and desertification as well as loss of biodiversity and health-related issues.

The sea level rise between 18 to 59 centimeters by the year 2100 predicted as “likely” by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 11) may lead to negative outcomes for many nations. Pacific islands such as Nauru the Marshall Islands may experience extensive loss of territory (Watson, Marufu and Moss 15). Coastal areas in cities like New York may become under water, with Manhattan entirely submerged. Some low-lying countries, for example the Netherlands and Pakistan may lose extensive parts of their territory, or be entirely inundated. According to the OECD, nations with lower income rates will experience the strongest effects (OECD 7).

Measurements of glaciers (large bodies of land ice and permafrost found in all climate zones, including the tropics, but most common in the Polar Regions) have shown that as of 2006 all glaciers around the world are receding and losing mass (WGMS). In the Alpine mountains of Europe, the receding ice and snow may put pressure on the resort industry to move skiing areas higher up the slopes, which may lead to a loss of revenue. In Switzerland, Austria, France, Germany and Italy resorts and villages may come under threat from an increasing number of landslides. According to a European study, reported in the New Scientist, the temperatures in rock and mud in the Swiss Alps increased by 0.5°C to 1.0°C from 1987-2001 (New Scientist). In mountainous areas of South America, Africa and Asia, the receding glaciers may introduce water shortages possibly complicating irrigation and water usage for agriculture in mountain communities. Effects on agriculture may be linked with increases in economic poverty. In all parts of the world national parks may experience a decline in the quality of services relating to their aesthetical beauty, and access to recreational activities.

The degradation of land, destruction of soil structure and loss of organic matter, also known as desertification may complicate food production, increase prices, and decrease the farmer’s competitiveness in the marketplace. As such, in addition to being an environmental concern, desertification may also contribute to poverty and social problems.

The impact of climate change on biodiversity depends on the degree of susceptibility of the particular system, also known as ecosystem sensitivity. As biodiversity is measured by the range of species in an ecosystem, the loss of species recorded around the world may be an indicator of the effects of a changing climate on the whole ecosystem. Ecosystems that are close to equator, and to the polar areas, may be especially fragile.

A warmer climate may create serious health effects, complicating the physical and mental well being of populations in different areas, including Europe and North America. New vectors of Malaria and other viruses may compromise the health of an increasing number of people. Accompanied by desertification and decreasing accessibility of water resources, areas in poorer regions may be especially strongly affected.

In order to mitigate such effects of global warming on sea levels, glaciers, polar ice, tropical areas, land, biodiversity and health the increasing in positive feedbacks needs to be slowed down. According to the 2007 Bali Climate Declaration, “based on current scientific understanding, [the limiting of global warming to no more than 2 ºC above the pre-industrial temperature] requires that global greenhouse gas emissions need to be reduced by at least 50% below their 1990 levels by the year 2050. “

One comprehensive solution which holds the promise of limiting global temperatures to the extent proposed by the IPCC as well as corresponding with the interests of both the economical and environmental perspectives is the hydrogen economy. For the adoption of the hydrogen economy, and to meet the rising energy consumption throughout the world, the involvement and cooperation of business, government and the third sector would be required. In a market environment the strong market incentives for such restructuration would be the popular demand and government subsidies matching or exceeding current subsidies for non-renewables. The hydrogen economy can best be described in two distinct parts by creating a differentiation between energy production (from renewable solar, wind or other sources) and the energy currency –hydrogen.

Energy produced from resources replenished in a practical timescale by natural phenomena is called renewable energy; non-renewables resources are not naturally replenished. As of 2006, approximately 88% of the total world energy consumption was produced from the non-renewable resources – oil, coal and gas (BP). With a comparatively low median price per kilowatt hour, ready availability and simple distribution, non-renewables remain the most economical option in many parts of the world. Nonetheless, the price of non-renewables has been steadily increasing over the past 15 years (BP), while the price of renewable energy is experiencing a gradual decrease (U.S. Department of State 22). One report expects “a rise in the cost of power generation based upon fossil fuel combustion and a relative improvement in the competitive position of an increasing range of renewable energy technologies.”, also adding that “over the next two decades, the cost of renewable technologies (particularly those that are ‘directly’ solar-based) is likely to decline markedly as technical progress and economies of scale combine to reduce unit generating costs.” (Hanley and Owen 306)

Largely due to scientific breakthroughs in nanotechnology, the efficiency of renewables, especially that of solar power has increased while the price has become more economical. As of January 2008, the latest generation solar power has reached a nominal wholesale price of 21.34 US cents per kilowatt hour based on prices in California (SolarBuzz) which may only be twice as expensive as ‘normal’ power. It is also worth noting that the price of solar energy depends on the cost of the installation; the cost of fuel is free. When comparing with nuclear energy, a concentrating solar thermal tower which is relatively easily constructed may produce 200 megawatt-hours of power depending on the size while a typical nuclear power station (which is time and resource consuming to construct) outputs anywhere from 1000-4000 megawatt-hours worth, also depending on the size.

In addition to a power generation technology, a second part is needed in a comprehensive energy system. In order to make the electricity generated from renewable resources run cars and planes, it needs to be transported using some sort of a currency. Traditional electricity cannot be stored for later usage and does not offer the flexibility offered by gaseous currencies such as natural gas and hydrogen. Hydrogen delivers the ease of use that consumers may have come to expect while being environmentally friendly. According to one report the price of hydrogen delivered to consumers would be no more than 50% more expensive than natural gas (Monbiot 137).

In a hydrogen economy the currency can be transported using pipelines and transformed back into electricity by a fuel cell in the consuming vehicle or other appliance. Fuel cells work by capturing electrons from hydrogen and oxygen to create an electrical current. As electrons become electricity the elements themselves are bound together becoming hot water, and then evaporate. Water vapor may also be recaptured and used for various applications (in the case of NASA spacecrafts which use hydrogen fuel for spaceflight, it becomes drinking water for the astronauts (NASA)).

Although the range of problems introduced by climate change is large and varied around the globe, they may be resolved through a limited set of renewable energy solutions. Both the hydrogen production and the hydrogen currency form an integral part of the carbon emission free economy. Economists report that “[renewables] bring significant additional advantages that are not generally quantified.” (Hanley and Owen 307) The water vapor produced when converting hydrogen to electricity is a benign emission and is easily captured. As a pollutant free system the hydrogen economy contributes to clearer skies and better health for the people, a richer nature and a more varied biological diversity in the biomes around the world.  With the economics of scale the mass production of renewable energy may bring the price of renewables to rates which are not only cheap enough for the environmentally conscious but economical enough for widespread adoption.

Bibliography

BP. Statistical Review of World Energy. New York: BP Amoco, 2007.

FAO. Global Forest Resources Assessment. New York: FAO, 2005.

Hanley, Nick and Anthony David Owen. The Economics Of Climate Change. New York: Routledge Press, 2004.

IPCC. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.

Monbiot, George. Heat: How to Stop the Planet from Burning. New York: South End Press, 2007.

NASA. Closing the Loop: Recycling Water and Air in Space. 2003. 16 January 2008 <www.nasa.gov/pdf/146558main_RecyclingEDA(final)%204_10_06.pdf>.

New Scientist. “Mountain Concern.” New Scientist January 2001.

NOAA. Ocean. 16 January 2008 <http://www.noaa.gov/ocean.html>.

OECD. “Policies to address climate change: the OECD experience and relevance for Mexico OECD Environment Directorate.” International Forum on Public Policies for the Development of Mexico. 2007.

SolarBuzz. Solar Electricity Prices. 2008. 16 January 2008 <http://www.solarbuzz.com/SolarPrices.htm>.

U.S. Department of State. “Clean Energy Solutions.” Economic Perspectives (2006).

Watson, Robert Tony, Zinyowera C. Marufu and Richard H. Moss. The Regional Impacts of Climate Change: An Assessment of Vulnerability. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

WGMS. Clacier Mass Balance Data 2003/2004, 2004/2005, and 2005/2006. 2008. 16 January 2008 <http://www.wgms.ch/mbb/mbb9/sum06.html>.